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What Ion Does Potassium Form

Written By Monday, October 31, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Chemical chemical element, symbol K and atomic number 19

Potassium, xix 1000
Potassium-2.jpg

Potassium pearls (in paraffin oil, ~5 mm each)
Potassium
Pronunciation ​(pə-TASS-ee-əm)
Advent silvery white
Standard atomic weight A r°(K)
  • 39.0983±0.0001
  • 39.098±0.001 (abridged)[1]
Potassium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Atomic number 26 Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silvery Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Na
↑
Yard
↓
Rb
argon ← potassium → calcium
Atomic number (Z) 19
Group group 1: hydrogen and brine metals
Period period 4
Cake south-cake
Electron configuration [Ar] 4sane
Electrons per trounce 2, 8, 8, 1
Concrete properties
Phase atSTP solid
Melting signal 336.7 K ​(63.5 °C, ​146.3 °F)
Humid point 1030.793 K ​(757.643 °C, ​1395.757 °F)[2]
Density (well-nighr.t.) 0.89 m/cmthree
when liquid (atm.p.) 0.82948 k/cm3 [ii]
Critical indicate 2223 K, 16 MPa[3]
Estrus of fusion 2.33 kJ/mol
Estrus of vaporization 76.9 kJ/mol
Molar estrus capacity 29.6 J/(mol·Yard)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states −1, +ane (a strongly basic oxide)
Electronegativity Pauling calibration: 0.82
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 418.8 kJ/mol
  • second: 3052 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 4420 kJ/mol
  • (more than)
Atomic radius empirical: 227 pm
Covalent radius 203±12 pm
Van der Waals radius 275 pm

Color lines in a spectral range

Spectral lines of potassium
Other properties
Natural occurrence primordial
Crystal construction ​body-centered cubic (bcc)

Body-centered cubic crystal structure for potassium

Speed of audio thin rod 2000 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion 83.3 µm/(yard⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 102.5 W/(k⋅1000)
Electric resistivity 72 nΩ⋅chiliad (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic[four]
Molar magnetic susceptibility +twenty.8×x−vi  cmiii/mol (298 Thousand)[5]
Young's modulus 3.53 GPa
Shear modulus ane.3 GPa
Bulk modulus three.one GPa
Mohs hardness 0.4
Brinell hardness 0.363 MPa
CAS Number 7440-09-7
History
Discovery and first isolation Humphry Davy (1807)
Symbol "K": from New Latin kalium
Primary isotopes of potassium
Iso­tope Abun­dance One-half-life (t i/ii) Disuse mode Pro­duct
39K 93.258% stable
40K 0.012% ane.248×109 y β− 40Ca
ε 40Ar
β+ xlAr
41K 6.730% stable
 Category: Potassium
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Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol Thou (from Neo-Latin kalium) and atomic number19. Potassium is a silver-white metallic that is soft enough to be cutting with a knife with niggling force.[6] Potassium metal reacts quickly with atmospheric oxygen to course flaky white potassium peroxide in only seconds of exposure. It was commencement isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, from which its name derives. In the periodic table, potassium is i of the alkali metals, all of which have a single valence electron in the outer electron shell, that is easily removed to create an ion with a positive charge – a cation, that combines with anions to grade salts. Potassium in nature occurs simply in ionic salts. Elemental potassium reacts vigorously with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite hydrogen emitted in the reaction, and called-for with a lilac-colored flame. It is constitute dissolved in sea water (which is 0.04% potassium by weight[seven] [8]), and occurs in many minerals such equally orthoclase, a mutual constituent of granites and other igneous rocks.[ix]

Potassium is chemically very like to sodium, the previous chemical element in group 1 of the periodic table. They have a like kickoff ionization energy, which allows for each atom to requite up its sole outer electron. Information technology was suspected in 1702 that they were distinct elements that combine with the same anions to brand similar salts,[x] and this was proven in 1807 through using electrolysis. Naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which forty
K is radioactive. Traces of 40
One thousand are found in all potassium, and information technology is the most common radioisotope in the human torso.

Potassium ions are vital for the functioning of all living cells. The transfer of potassium ions across nerve cell membranes is necessary for normal nerve transmission; potassium deficiency and excess tin each upshot in numerous signs and symptoms, including an abnormal eye rhythm and various electrocardiographic abnormalities. Fresh fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. The body responds to the influx of dietary potassium, which raises serum potassium levels, with a shift of potassium from outside to inside cells and an increase in potassium excretion by the kidneys.

Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium compounds, such as potassium soaps. Heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of global potassium chemical production.[11]

Etymology

The English name for the element potassium comes from the word potash,[12] which refers to an early method of extracting diverse potassium salts: placing in a pot the ash of burnt wood or tree leaves, adding water, heating, and evaporating the solution. When Humphry Davy first isolated the pure chemical element using electrolysis in 1807, he named it potassium, which he derived from the word potash.

The symbol K stems from kali, itself from the root discussion alkali, which in turn comes from Arabic: القَلْيَه al-qalyah 'found ashes'. In 1797, the German pharmacist Martin Klaproth discovered "potash" in the minerals leucite and lepidolite, and realized that "potash" was not a product of institute growth but really independent a new element, which he proposed calling kali.[13] In 1807, Humphry Davy produced the element via electrolysis: in 1809, Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert proposed the name Kalium for Davy's "potassium".[fourteen] In 1814, the Swedish chemist Berzelius advocated the name kalium for potassium, with the chemical symbol K.[xv]

The English and French-speaking countries adopted Davy and Gay-Lussac/Thénard'southward proper name Potassium, whereas the Germanic countries adopted Gilbert/Klaproth's proper name Kalium.[sixteen] The "Aureate Book" of the International Union of Pure and Practical Chemistry has designated the official chemical symbol every bit One thousand.[17]

Properties

Physical

Potassium is the second least dumbo metal after lithium. It is a soft solid with a low melting bespeak, and tin can exist hands cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but information technology begins to tarnish toward grey immediately on exposure to air.[18] In a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a lilac color with a acme emission wavelength of 766.5 nanometers.[xix]

Neutral potassium atoms take 19 electrons, one more than the configuration of the noble gas argon. Because of its low start ionization free energy of 418.eightkJ/mol, the potassium atom is much more likely to lose the concluding electron and acquire a positive charge, although negatively charged alkalide K− ions are non impossible.[20] In contrast, the second ionization energy is very high (3052kJ/mol).

Chemical

Potassium reacts with oxygen, h2o, and carbon dioxide components in air. With oxygen it forms potassium peroxide. With water potassium forms potassium hydroxide. The reaction of potassium with h2o can be violently exothermic, especially since the coproduced hydrogen gas can ignite. Because of this, potassium and the liquid sodium-potassium (NaK) blend are potent desiccants, although they are no longer used as such.[21]

Compounds

Structure of solid potassium superoxide (

KO2 ).

Four oxides of potassium are well studied: potassium oxide (Thou2O), potassium peroxide (K2O2 ), potassium superoxide (KO2 )[22] and potassium ozonide (KO3 ). The binary potassium-oxygen compounds react with water forming potassium hydroxide KOH.

Potassium hydroxide is a strong base. Illustrating its hydrophilic character, as much as 1.21 kg of KOH tin can dissolve in a single liter of h2o.[23] [24] Anhydrous KOH is rarely encountered. KOH reacts readily with carbon dioxide COii to produce potassium carbonate K2CO3 , and in principle could be used to remove traces of the gas from air. Like the closely related sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide reacts with fats to produce soaps.

In general, potassium compounds are ionic and, attributable to the high hydration energy of the 1000+ ion, take excellent water solubility. The chief species in water solution are the aquo complexes [Yard(HtwoO) n ]+ where due north = 6 and vii.[25]

Potassium heptafluorotantalate Ktwo[TaF7] is an intermediate in the purification of tantalum from the otherwise persistent contaminant of niobium.[26]

Organopotassium compounds illustrate nonionic compounds of potassium. They characteristic highly polar covalent Thousand–C bonds. Examples include benzyl potassium KCH2C6H5 . Potassium intercalates into graphite to give a variety of graphite intercalation compounds, including KC8 .

Isotopes

There are 25 known isotopes of potassium, three of which occur naturally: 39
G (93.3%), 40
1000 (0.0117%), and 41
One thousand (half-dozen.7%) (past mole fraction). Naturally occurring 40
K has a half-life of one.250×10ix years. Information technology decays to stable 40
Ar by electron capture or positron emission (11.ii%) or to stable xl
Ca by beta decay (88.8%).[27] The disuse of 40
Thou to xl
Ar is the ground of a common method for dating rocks. The conventional M-Ar dating method depends on the assumption that the rocks contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon ( forty
Ar) was quantitatively retained. Minerals are dated by measurement of the concentration of potassium and the corporeality of radiogenic forty
Ar that has accumulated. The minerals all-time suited for dating include biotite, muscovite, metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock samples from volcanic flows and shallow instrusives can besides be dated if they are unaltered.[27] [28] Autonomously from dating, potassium isotopes have been used as tracers in studies of weathering and for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is a macronutrient required for life[29] on Earth.

twoscore
Grand occurs in natural potassium (and thus in some commercial common salt substitutes) in sufficient quantity that large bags of those substitutes tin be used every bit a radioactive source for classroom demonstrations. twoscore
1000 is the radioisotope with the largest abundance in the body. In healthy animals and people, twoscore
K represents the largest source of radioactive decay, greater even than 14
C. In a human body of seventy kg, about 4,400 nuclei of twoscore
G decay per second.[30] The activity of natural potassium is 31 Bq/g.[31]

Cosmic formation and distribution

Potassium is formed in supernovae by nucleosynthesis from lighter atoms. Potassium is principally created in Type 2 supernovae via an explosive oxygen-burning procedure.[32] (These are fusion reactions; exercise not misfile with chemical burning between potassium and oxygen.) 40
One thousand is besides formed in s-procedure nucleosynthesis and the neon burning process.[33]

Potassium is the 20th almost abundant element in the solar system and the 17th nearly arable element past weight in the Earth. Information technology makes up almost ii.6% of the weight of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element in the crust.[34] The potassium concentration in seawater is 0.39g/50[7] (0.039 wt/v%), about i 20-7th the concentration of sodium.[35] [36]

Potash

Potash is primarily a mixture of potassium salts because plants have little or no sodium content, and the rest of a found's major mineral content consists of calcium salts of relatively low solubility in water. While potash has been used since ancient times, its composition was not understood. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental testify that led him to suggest the cardinal divergence of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,[x] and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this deviation in 1736.[37] The verbal chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known and so, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did non include the brine in his list of chemical elements in 1789.[38] [39] For a long time the merely significant applications for potash were the production of drinking glass, bleach, soap and gunpowder as potassium nitrate.[twoscore] Potassium soaps from animal fats and vegetable oils were especially prized because they tend to be more water-soluble and of softer texture, and are therefore known equally soft soaps.[11] The discovery past Justus Liebig in 1840 that potassium is a necessary element for plants and that most types of soil lack potassium[41] caused a steep rise in demand for potassium salts. Woods-ash from fir trees was initially used as a potassium salt source for fertilizer, only, with the discovery in 1868 of mineral deposits containing potassium chloride near Staßfurt, Germany, the product of potassium-containing fertilizers began at an industrial scale.[42] [43] [44] Other potash deposits were discovered, and by the 1960s Canada became the dominant producer.[45] [46]

Metal

Pieces of potassium metal

Potassium metal was first isolated in 1807 by Humphry Davy, who derived it by electrolysis of molten KOH with the newly discovered voltaic pile. Potassium was the outset metal that was isolated by electrolysis.[47] Later in the same yr, Davy reported extraction of the metallic sodium from a mineral derivative (caustic soda, NaOH, or lye) rather than a plant salt, by a similar technique, demonstrating that the elements, and thus the salts, are unlike.[38] [39] [48] [49] Although the production of potassium and sodium metal should have shown that both are elements, it took some time before this view was universally accepted.[39]

Because of the sensitivity of potassium to water and air, air-free techniques are normally employed for handling the element. It is unreactive toward nitrogen and saturated hydrocarbons such as mineral oil or kerosene.[fifty] It readily dissolves in liquid ammonia, up to 480 thousand per g g of ammonia at 0°C. Depending on the concentration, the ammonia solutions are blue to yellow, and their electric electrical conductivity is similar to that of liquid metals. Potassium slowly reacts with ammonia to grade KNH
2 , but this reaction is accelerated by minute amounts of transition metal salts.[51] Because it can reduce the salts to the metal, potassium is often used as the reductant in the preparation of finely divided metals from their salts past the Rieke method.[52] Illustrative is the preparation of magnesium:

MgClii + 2 Thousand → Mg + two KCl

Geology

Elemental potassium does non occur in nature because of its high reactivity. It reacts violently with water (meet section Precautions below)[50] and also reacts with oxygen. Orthoclase (potassium feldspar) is a common rock-forming mineral. Granite for instance contains five% potassium, which is well to a higher place the average in the Earth's crust. Sylvite (KCl), carnallite (KCl·MgCl2·6H2O), kainite (MgSO4·KCl·3H2O) and langbeinite (MgSOiv·K2SOiv ) are the minerals found in large evaporite deposits worldwide. The deposits oft show layers starting with the to the lowest degree soluble at the bottom and the most soluble on height.[36] Deposits of niter (potassium nitrate) are formed past decomposition of organic material in contact with atmosphere, mostly in caves; because of the skilful water solubility of niter the formation of larger deposits requires special environmental conditions.[53]

Biological role

Potassium is the 8th or ninth most common element by mass (0.2%) in the homo torso, and then that a 60kg adult contains a total of about 120g of potassium.[54] The body has about equally much potassium equally sulfur and chlorine, and only calcium and phosphorus are more arable (with the exception of the ubiquitous CHON elements).[55] Potassium ions are present in a wide variety of proteins and enzymes.[56]

Biochemical part

Potassium levels influence multiple physiological processes, including[57] [58] [59]

  • resting cellular-membrane potential and the propagation of activeness potentials in neuronal, muscular, and cardiac tissue. Due to the electrostatic and chemical properties, Thousand+ ions are larger than Na+ ions, and ion channels and pumps in cell membranes tin differentiate betwixt the two ions, actively pumping or passively passing i of the two ions while blocking the other.[60]
  • hormone secretion and action
  • vascular tone
  • systemic blood pressure level control
  • gastrointestinal motility
  • acid–base of operations homeostasis
  • glucose and insulin metabolism
  • mineralocorticoid action
  • renal concentrating ability
  • fluid and electrolyte balance

Homeostasis

Potassium homeostasis denotes the maintenance of the full body potassium content, plasma potassium level, and the ratio of the intracellular to extracellular potassium concentrations inside narrow limits, in the face of pulsatile intake (meals), obligatory renal excretion, and shifts betwixt intracellular and extracellular compartments.

Plasma levels

Plasma potassium is normally kept at 3.v to 5.5 millimoles (mmol) [or milliequivalents (mEq)] per liter by multiple mechanisms.[61] Levels outside this range are associated with an increasing rate of death from multiple causes,[62] and some cardiac, kidney,[63] and lung diseases progress more apace if serum potassium levels are not maintained within the normal range.

An average meal of forty–lmmol presents the body with more potassium than is present in all plasma (20–25mmol). Even so, this surge causes the plasma potassium to ascension merely x% at most as a issue of prompt and efficient clearance past both renal and extra-renal mechanisms.[64]

Hypokalemia, a deficiency of potassium in the plasma, can exist fatal if severe. Common causes are increased gastrointestinal loss (vomiting, diarrhea), and increased renal loss (diuresis).[65] Deficiency symptoms include muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities, decreased reflex response; and in severe cases, respiratory paralysis, alkalosis, and cardiac arrhythmia.[66]

Control mechanisms

Potassium content in the plasma is tightly controlled by four basic mechanisms, which have various names and classifications. The four are ane) a reactive negative-feedback organisation, ii) a reactive feed-forrard system, three) a predictive or circadian system, and iv) an internal or prison cell membrane transport system. Collectively, the starting time iii are sometimes termed the "external potassium homeostasis arrangement";[67] and the first two, the "reactive potassium homeostasis system".

  • The reactive negative-feedback system refers to the arrangement that induces renal secretion of potassium in response to a rise in the plasma potassium (potassium ingestion, shift out of cells, or intravenous infusion.)
  • The reactive feed-forwards organisation refers to an incompletely understood system that induces renal potassium secretion in response to potassium ingestion prior to whatsoever rise in the plasma potassium. This is probably initiated by gut prison cell potassium receptors that detect ingested potassium and trigger vagal afferent signals to the pituitary gland.
  • The predictive or circadian system increases renal secretion of potassium during mealtime hours (e.g. daytime for humans, nighttime for rodents) contained of the presence, amount, or absenteeism of potassium ingestion. Information technology is mediated by a cyclic oscillator in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain (central clock), which causes the kidney (peripheral clock) to secrete potassium in this rhythmic circadian mode.

    The action of the sodium-potassium pump is an case of master active transport. The two carrier proteins embedded in the cell membrane on the left are using ATP to move sodium out of the cell against the concentration gradient; The two proteins on the correct are using secondary active transport to motility potassium into the prison cell. This process results in reconstitution of ATP.

  • The ion transport arrangement moves potassium across the cell membrane using two mechanisms. One is active and pumps sodium out of, and potassium into, the cell. The other is passive and allows potassium to leak out of the cell. Potassium and sodium cations influence fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments past osmotic forces. The motion of potassium and sodium through the cell membrane is mediated by the Na⁺/One thousand⁺-ATPase pump.[68] This ion pump uses ATP to pump three sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell, creating an electrochemical gradient and electromotive forcefulness across the jail cell membrane. The highly selective potassium ion channels (which are tetramers) are crucial for hyperpolarization inside neurons after an action potential is triggered, to cite one case. The well-nigh recently discovered potassium ion channel is KirBac3.1, which makes a total of 5 potassium ion channels (KcsA, KirBac1.1, KirBac3.1, KvAP, and MthK) with a determined structure. All five are from prokaryotic species.[69]

Renal filtration, reabsorption, and excretion

Renal handling of potassium is closely connected to sodium handling. Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside fauna cells [150mmol/50, (four.81000)], while sodium is the major cation of extracellular fluid [150mmol/L, (3.345yard)]. In the kidneys, about 180liters of plasma is filtered through the glomeruli and into the renal tubules per day.[seventy] This filtering involves about 600g of sodium and 33chiliad of potassium. Since only 1–10grand of sodium and 1–4grand of potassium are likely to be replaced by diet, renal filtering must efficiently reabsorb the balance from the plasma.

Sodium is reabsorbed to maintain extracellular volume, osmotic pressure, and serum sodium concentration within narrow limits. Potassium is reabsorbed to maintain serum potassium concentration within narrow limits.[71] Sodium pumps in the renal tubules operate to reabsorb sodium. Potassium must be conserved, but because the amount of potassium in the blood plasma is very small and the puddle of potassium in the cells is nearly thirty times as large, the situation is not so disquisitional for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively[72] [73] in counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium,[74] the urine can never sink beneath the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting water at the stop of the processing. Potassium is excreted twice and reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules.[75] At that betoken, urine usually has virtually the aforementioned potassium concentration as plasma. At the end of the processing, potassium is secreted one more than fourth dimension if the serum levels are too high.[ commendation needed ]

With no potassium intake, it is excreted at nearly 200mg per solar day until, in about a week, potassium in the serum declines to a mildly deficient level of 3.0–three.5mmol/L.[76] If potassium is nevertheless withheld, the concentration continues to fall until a severe deficiency causes eventual death.[77]

The potassium moves passively through pores in the cell membrane. When ions motion through Ion transporters (pumps) there is a gate in the pumps on both sides of the prison cell membrane and but one gate tin can exist open at one time. As a upshot, approximately 100 ions are forced through per second. Ion channel have only 1 gate, and there only i kind of ion can stream through, at x one thousand thousand to 100 million ions per second.[78] Calcium is required to open up the pores,[79] although calcium may work in reverse past blocking at least one of the pores.[80] Carbonyl groups inside the pore on the amino acids mimic the h2o hydration that takes place in water solution[81] by the nature of the electrostatic charges on iv carbonyl groups within the pore.[82]

Nutrition

Dietary recommendations

The U.South. National Academy of Medicine (NAM), on behalf of both the U.S. and Canada, sets Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), or Acceptable Intakes (AIs) for when at that place is not sufficient information to prepare EARs and RDAs. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to every bit Dietary Reference Intakes.

For both males and females under ix years of age, the AIs for potassium are: 400mg of potassium for 0-half dozen-month-old infants, 860mg of potassium for 7-12-month-sometime infants, ii,000mg of potassium for 1-3-yr-old children, and 2,300mg of potassium for four-eight-yr-erstwhile children.

For males 9 years of age and older, the AIs for potassium are: 2,500mg of potassium for nine-13-year-old males, 3,000mg of potassium for 14-18-year-onetime males, and 3,400mg for males that are 19 years of age and older.

For females 9 years of age and older, the AIs for potassium are: ii,300mg of potassium for ix-18-twelvemonth-old females, and two,600mg of potassium for females that are 19 years of age and older.

For meaning and lactating females, the AIs for potassium are: 2,600mg of potassium for xiv-18-yr-one-time pregnant females, 2,900mg for significant females that are 19 years of age and older; furthermore, 2,500mg of potassium for 14-18-yr-old lactating females, and 2,800mg for lactating females that are 19 years of age and older. Equally for prophylactic, the NAM also sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals, but for potassium the evidence was bereft, and so no UL was established.[83] [84]

As of 2004, most Americans adults eat less than 3,000mg.[85]

Likewise, in the European union, in particular in Deutschland and Italia, insufficient potassium intake is somewhat common.[86] The British National Wellness Service recommends a similar intake, saying that adults demand 3,500mg per day and that excess amounts may cause health problems such every bit breadbasket pain and diarrhoea.[87]

Previously the Adequate Intake for adults was fix at 4,700 mg per 24-hour interval. In 2019, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine revised the AI for potassium to 2,600 mg/day for females 19 years and older and three,400 mg/day for males 19 years and older.[88]

Nutrient sources

Potassium is nowadays in all fruits, vegetables, meat and fish. Foods with high potassium concentrations include yam, parsley, dried apricots, milk, chocolate, all basics (especially almonds and pistachios), potatoes, bamboo shoots, bananas, avocados, coconut water, soybeans, and bran.[89]

The USDA lists lycopersicon esculentum paste, orangish juice, beet greens, white beans, potatoes, plantains, bananas, apricots, and many other dietary sources of potassium, ranked in descending society according to potassium content. A mean solar day'south worth of potassium is in 5 plantains or 11 bananas.[90]

Scarce intake

Diets low in potassium can pb to hypertension[91] and hypokalemia.

Supplementation

Supplements of potassium are most widely used in conjunction with diuretics that cake reabsorption of sodium and water upstream from the distal tubule (thiazides and loop diuretics), because this promotes increased distal tubular potassium secretion, with resultant increased potassium excretion. A variety of prescription and over-the counter supplements are bachelor. Potassium chloride may be dissolved in water, but the salty/bitter taste makes liquid supplements unpalatable.[92] Typical doses range from xmmol (400mg), to 20mmol (800mg). Potassium is likewise bachelor in tablets or capsules, which are formulated to permit potassium to leach slowly out of a matrix, since very high concentrations of potassium ion that occur adjacent to a solid tablet can hurt the gastric or abdominal mucosa. For this reason, non-prescription potassium pills are limited by police in the U.s. to a maximum of 99mg of potassium.[ citation needed ]

Since the kidneys are the site of potassium excretion, individuals with impaired kidney function are at risk for hyperkalemia if dietary potassium and supplements are not restricted. The more severe the harm, the more severe is the restriction necessary to avert hyperkalemia.

A meta-analysis ended that a 1640mg increase in the daily intake of potassium was associated with a 21% lower chance of stroke.[93] Potassium chloride and potassium bicarbonate may be useful to control mild hypertension.[94] In 2017, potassium was the 37th nearly commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more nineteen 1000000 prescriptions.[95] [96]

Detection by taste buds

Potassium tin exist detected by taste because it triggers three of the 5 types of taste sensations, according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ions gustatory modality sweet, allowing moderate concentrations in milk and juices, while higher concentrations become increasingly bitter/alkaline, and finally also salty to the sense of taste. The combined bitterness and saltiness of loftier-potassium solutions makes loftier-dose potassium supplementation past liquid drinks a palatability challenge.[92] [97]

Commercial production

Mining

Potassium salts such as carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and sylvite form extensive evaporite deposits in ancient lake bottoms and seabeds,[35] making extraction of potassium salts in these environments commercially viable. The master source of potassium – potash – is mined in Canada, Russian federation, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Germany, State of israel, United states, Jordan, and other places around the globe.[98] [99] [100] The starting time mined deposits were located near Staßfurt, Germany, but the deposits bridge from Great Uk over Germany into Poland. They are located in the Zechstein and were deposited in the Middle to Tardily Permian. The largest deposits always institute lie i,000 meters (3,300 feet) beneath the surface of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The deposits are located in the Elk Point Group produced in the Center Devonian. Saskatchewan, where several big mines have operated since the 1960s pioneered the technique of freezing of wet sands (the Blairmore formation) to drive mine shafts through them. The master potash mining visitor in Saskatchewan until its merge was the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan, at present Nutrien.[101] The water of the Dead Sea is used by Israel and Jordan as a source of potash, while the concentration in normal oceans is too low for commercial production at current prices.[99] [100]

Several methods are used to separate potassium salts from sodium and magnesium compounds. The well-nigh-used method is fractional precipitation using the solubility differences of the salts. Electrostatic separation of the basis salt mixture is as well used in some mines. The resulting sodium and magnesium waste is either stored hole-and-corner or piled upward in slag heaps. Most of the mined potassium mineral ends up equally potassium chloride after processing. The mineral industry refers to potassium chloride either as potash, muriate of potash, or but MOP.[36]

Pure potassium metal tin exist isolated by electrolysis of its hydroxide in a procedure that has changed piddling since it was kickoff used past Humphry Davy in 1807. Although the electrolysis process was developed and used in industrial scale in the 1920s, the thermal method by reacting sodium with potassium chloride in a chemical equilibrium reaction became the dominant method in the 1950s.

Na + KCl → NaCl + G

The production of sodium potassium alloys is accomplished past changing the reaction time and the amount of sodium used in the reaction. The Griesheimer procedure employing the reaction of potassium fluoride with calcium carbide was also used to produce potassium.[36] [102]

2 KF + CaCii → ii K + CaFii + 2 C

Reagent-grade potassium metal costs about $10.00/pound ($22/kg) in 2010 when purchased by the tonne. Lower purity metal is considerably cheaper. The market is volatile because long-term storage of the metal is hard. It must be stored in a dry inert gas atmosphere or anhydrous mineral oil to foreclose the formation of a surface layer of potassium superoxide, a force per unit area-sensitive explosive that detonates when scratched. The resulting explosion oftentimes starts a fire difficult to extinguish.[103] [104]

Cation identification

Potassium is now quantified by ionization techniques, but at one time information technology was quantitated by gravimetric analysis.

Reagents used to precipitate potassium salts include sodium tetraphenylborate, hexachloroplatinic acrid, and sodium cobaltinitrite into respectively potassium tetraphenylborate, potassium hexachloroplatinate, and potassium cobaltinitrite.[50] The reaction with sodium cobaltinitrite is illustrative:

3 Chiliad+ + Nathree[Co(NO2)6] → Thousandthree[Co(NOii)6] + three Na+

The potassium cobaltinitrite is obtained as a yellow solid.

Commercial uses

Fertilizer

Potassium sulfate/magnesium sulfate fertilizer

Potassium ions are an essential component of plant nutrition and are found in most soil types.[eleven] They are used as a fertilizer in agriculture, horticulture, and hydroponic culture in the form of chloride (KCl), sulfate (M2SOiv ), or nitrate (KNO3 ), representing the 'K' in 'NPK'. Agronomical fertilizers eat 95% of global potassium chemical product, and about 90% of this potassium is supplied as KCl.[11] The potassium content of about plants ranges from 0.5% to ii% of the harvested weight of crops, conventionally expressed as corporeality of KtwoO. Modern loftier-yield agriculture depends upon fertilizers to supersede the potassium lost at harvest. Most agricultural fertilizers incorporate potassium chloride, while potassium sulfate is used for chloride-sensitive crops or crops needing higher sulfur content. The sulfate is produced mostly by decomposition of the circuitous minerals kainite (MgSOiv·KCl·3H2O) and langbeinite (MgSO4·K2SOiv ). Only a very few fertilizers comprise potassium nitrate.[105] In 2005, about 93% of world potassium production was consumed by the fertilizer industry.[100] Furthermore, potassium tin play a key office in food cycling by decision-making litter composition.[106]

Medical utilize

Potassium citrate

Potassium citrate is used to treat a kidney rock condition called renal tubular acidosis.[107]

Potassium chloride

Potassium, in the course of potassium chloride is used equally a medication to care for and prevent depression blood potassium.[108] Low blood potassium may occur due to vomiting, diarrhea, or certain medications.[109] Information technology is given by dull injection into a vein or past mouth.[110]

Food additives

Potassium sodium tartrate (KNaCfourH4O6 , Rochelle table salt) is a primary constituent of some varieties of blistering powder; information technology is also used in the silvering of mirrors. Potassium bromate (KBrOiii ) is a strong oxidizer (E924), used to improve dough force and rise pinnacle. Potassium bisulfite (KHSO3 ) is used as a food preservative, for example in wine and beer-making (only non in meats). It is also used to bleach textiles and harbinger, and in the tanning of leathers.[111] [112]

Industrial

Major potassium chemicals are potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, and potassium chloride. Megatons of these compounds are produced annually.[113]

Potassium hydroxide KOH is a stiff base, which is used in industry to neutralize stiff and weak acids, to command pH and to industry potassium salts. It is also used to saponify fats and oils, in industrial cleaners, and in hydrolysis reactions, for example of esters.[114] [115]

Potassium nitrate (KNO3 ) or saltpeter is obtained from natural sources such as guano and evaporites or manufactured via the Haber process; information technology is the oxidant in gunpowder (black powder) and an of import agricultural fertilizer. Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used industrially to dissolve copper and precious metals, in particular silver and aureate, past forming complexes. Its applications include gold mining, electroplating, and electroforming of these metals; it is likewise used in organic synthesis to make nitriles. Potassium carbonate (Thousand2CO3 or potash) is used in the manufacture of drinking glass, lather, colour TV tubes, fluorescent lamps, textile dyes and pigments.[116] Potassium permanganate (KMnOiv ) is an oxidizing, bleaching and purification substance and is used for production of saccharin. Potassium chlorate (KClO3 ) is added to matches and explosives. Potassium bromide (KBr) was formerly used equally a allaying and in photography.[eleven]

While potassium chromate (ChiliadiiCrO4 ) is used in the manufacture of a host of dissimilar commercial products such equally inks, dyes, wood stains (past reacting with the tannic acid in wood), explosives, fireworks, fly paper, and prophylactic matches,[117] besides every bit in the tanning of leather, all of these uses are due to the chemical science of the chromate ion rather than to that of the potassium ion.[118]

Niche uses

There are thousands of uses of various potassium compounds. 1 example is potassium superoxide, KO2 , an orange solid that acts every bit a portable source of oxygen and a carbon dioxide absorber. Information technology is widely used in respiration systems in mines, submarines and spacecraft as it takes less volume than the gaseous oxygen.[119] [120]

4 KOtwo + ii COtwo → ii KiiCOthree + iii Oii

Some other example is potassium cobaltinitrite, One thousand3[Co(NO2)six], which is used as artist's pigment nether the proper noun of Aureolin or Cobalt Yellow.[121]

The stable isotopes of potassium can be light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation cooled and used to probe fundamental and technological problems in quantum physics. The ii bosonic isotopes possess convenient Feshbach resonances to enable studies requiring tunable interactions, while 40
K is one of only 2 stable fermions amongst the alkali metals.[122]

Laboratory uses

An alloy of sodium and potassium, NaK is a liquid used as a rut-transfer medium and a desiccant for producing dry and air-free solvents. It tin can also be used in reactive distillation.[123] The ternary alloy of 12% Na, 47% Grand and 41% Cs has the everyman melting bespeak of −78°C of whatever metallic chemical compound.[18]

Metal potassium is used in several types of magnetometers.[124]

Precautions

Potassium
Hazards
GHS labelling:

Pictograms

 GHS02: Flammable GHS05: Corrosive

Signal give-and-take

 Danger

Take a chance statements

 H260, H314

Precautionary statements

 P223, P231+P232, P280, P305+P351+P338, P370+P378, P422 [125]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)

iii

3

two

Westward

Chemical compound

Potassium metal can react violently with water producing potassium hydroxide (KOH) and hydrogen gas.

2 Grand(s) + 2 H2O(fifty) → two KOH(aq) + H2(one thousand)↑

A reaction of potassium metallic with water. Hydrogen is produced, and with potassium vapor, burns with a pink or lilac flame. Strongly alkaline potassium hydroxide is formed in solution.

This reaction is exothermic and releases sufficient oestrus to ignite the resulting hydrogen in the presence of oxygen. Finely powdered potassium ignites in air at room temperature. The bulk metal ignites in air if heated. Considering its density is 0.89g/cmiii, burning potassium floats in h2o that exposes it to atmospheric oxygen. Many common burn extinguishing agents, including water, either are ineffective or make a potassium fire worse. Nitrogen, argon, sodium chloride (salt), sodium carbonate (soda ash), and silicon dioxide (sand) are effective if they are dry. Some Course D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are also effective. These agents deprive the burn of oxygen and absurd the potassium metal.[126]

During storage, potassium forms peroxides and superoxides. These peroxides may react violently with organic compounds such as oils. Both peroxides and superoxides may react explosively with metallic potassium.[127]

Considering potassium reacts with water vapor in the air, it is ordinarily stored under anhydrous mineral oil or kerosene. Unlike lithium and sodium, however, potassium should non be stored nether oil for longer than half-dozen months, unless in an inert (oxygen free) temper, or under vacuum. After prolonged storage in air dangerous stupor-sensitive peroxides can form on the metal and under the hat of the container, and tin can detonate upon opening.[128]

Ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds tin lead to hyperkalemia, strongly influencing the cardiovascular system.[129] [130] Potassium chloride is used in the Usa for lethal injection executions.[129]

See also

References

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     La dénomination de Potasche (potasse) que la nouvelle nomenclature françoise a consacrée comme nom de tout le genre, ne sauroit faire fortune auprès des chimistes allemands, qui sentent à quel betoken la dérivation étymologique en est vicieuse. Elle est prise en effet de ce qu'anciennement on se servoit pour la calcination des lessives concentrées des cendres, de pots de fer (pott en dialecte de la Basse-Saxe) auxquels on a substitué depuis des fours à calciner.
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    (This alkali [i.east., potash] — [which] therefore tin can no longer be viewed equally a product of growth in plants — occupies a proper place in the originally simple series of the mineral realm, and information technology becomes necessary to assign it a name that is ameliorate suited to its nature.
    The name of "potash" (potasse), which the new French nomenclature has bestowed as the name of the entire species [i.e., substance], would not discover acceptance amidst German chemists, who feel to some extent [that] the etymological derivation of it is faulty. Indeed, it is taken from [the vessels] that one formerly used for the roasting of washing powder concentrated from cinders: fe pots (pott in the dialect of Lower Saxony), for which roasting ovens have been substituted since and so.
    Thus I at present propose to substitute for the until at present common words of "plant alkali", "vegetable alkali", "potash", etc., that of kali ; and to return to the old name of natron instead of maxim "mineral brine", "soda", etc.)
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Bibliography

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External links

  • "Potassium". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.

What Ion Does Potassium Form,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium

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